Legal and Ethical Implications of Offensive Cybersecurity Operations

Abstract

This paper explores the legal and ethical landscape surrounding offensive cybersecurity operations (OCOs), focusing on their global adoption, governance mechanisms, and implications. Through an analysis of real-time incident data reported until 2022, the study investigates the frequency of OCOs, their compliance with legal norms, and the ethical dilemmas they pose. Case studies from major cyber-active nations such as the United States, China, Russia, the UK, and India are examined to evaluate international responses and policy structures. The paper also reviews international treaties such as the Budapest Convention and the Tallinn Manual, offering policy-level recommendations to promote transparency, accountability, and ethical oversight in state-sponsored cyber activities.